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Pengaruh Hellenisme dalam Gaya Seni Arca Masa Klasik Tua di Jawa (abad ke 8-10 M) PDF Cetak
Ditulis oleh Dr. Agus Aris Munandar   
Kamis, 12 Februari 2009 06:56

PENGARUH HELLENISME DALAM GAYA SENI ARCA MASA KLASIK TUA DI JAWA (abad ke-8—10 M)

Agus Aris Munandar
Departemen Arkeologi FIB UI


01.Pengantar

Dalam periodisasi sejarah kebudayaan Indonesia dikenal adanya beberapa tahapan secara garis besar, yaitu masa prasejarah yang merupakan perkembangan kebudayaan yang paling awal, seluruh kepulauan Indonesia mengalami tahapan prasejarah tersebut. Masa prasejarah kira-kira berakhir dalam abad ke-4 M dengan ditemukannya bukti tertulis awal di Nusantara. Masa prasejarah mempunyai suatu era penting yang dinamakan megalitik, dalam era itu penduduk kepulauan Indonesia telah menghasilkan bermacam monumen megalitik sebagai sarana pemujaan kepada arwah leluhur (ancestor worship). Aktivitas dalam era megalitik tersebut tidaklah terhenti, melainkan di beberapa tempat terus berlanjut hingga masa sejarah sudah dikenal oleh penduduk kepulauan Nusantara, bahkan ada yang terus bertahan hingga dewasa ini.

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PDF Cetak
Ditulis oleh Dr. Agus Aris Munandar   
Kamis, 12 Februari 2009 03:23

MENGAPA PIM  HARUS DIRELOKASI ?: ARGUMENTASI ARKEOLOGIS
Dr. Agus Aris Munandar*


Di lokasi bakal tempat PIM (Pusat Informasi Majapahit) yang telah digali pondasinya itu memang situs. Kalangan peneliti arkeologi menjulukinya Situs Segaran III, IV, dan V. Penamaan itu didasarkan kepada pembagian sektor penelitian arkeologi karena dekat dengan kolam luas Segaran yang berukuran 375 x 175 m,  dalamnya sekitar 3 m. Lokasi calon PIM semula, dalam perspektif arkeologi masih dapat disebut “aman”, karena memang di lokasi itu penggalian tanah liat untuk bata oleh penduduk di linggan-linggan belum dilakukan, maklum tanah di lokasi tersebut telah menjadi milik pemerintah. Lokasi itu jadi tidak ranap dengan tanah sekitarnya, agak membukit karena memang belum “diapa-apakan”. Setelah “Geger Trowulan” selama berhari-hari di mass media yang dipelopori oleh KOMPAS  mulai hari Minggu, 4 Januari 2009, dan disokong oleh berbagai berita sejenis di mass media lainnya,  maka lokasi proyek Pusat Informasi Majapahit itu harus direlokasi.


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Sastra Bandingan: Pintu Masuk Kajian Budaya PDF Cetak E-mail
Ditulis oleh Maman S. Mahayana   
Selasa, 20 Januari 2009 06:37

SASTRA BANDINGAN: PINTU MASUK KAJIAN BUDAYA
STUDI KASUS ROMEO DAN JULIA, SONEZAKI SHINJU, UDA DAN DARA

Maman S. Mahayana


Ada dua hal yang sangat mungkin menjadi problem dalam sastra bandingan (comparative literature) sebagai sebuah disiplin ilmu. Pertama, persoalan yang menyangkut konsep sastra bandingan. Dalam banyak rumusan atau definisi sastra bandingan pada umumnya, penekanan perbandingan pada dua karya atau lebih dari sedikitnya dua negara yang berbeda menjadi pusat perhatian yang utama. Jadi, sebuah perbandingan dua karya atau lebih yang berasal dari dua negara, termasuk ke dalam wilayah sastra bandingan. Jika kita membandingkan dua karya yang berasal dari dua kultur etnik yang berbeda –Sunda dan Jawa, misalnya—, padahal kedua karya itu berada dalam wilayah negara yang sama, apakah termasuk ke dalam wilayah sastra bandingan. Pertanyaan yang sama dapat diajukan ketika kita membandingkan sastra Singapura dengan sastra Taiwan yang keduanya memakai bahasa Mandarin atau sastra Brunei Darussalam dengan sastra Malaysia yang keduanya memakai bahasa Melayu. Pertanyaan yang sama tentu saja dapat kita kemukakan lebih panjang lagi. Jadi, jika kita mengamati karya-karya dari berbagai negara yang menggunakan bahasa yang sama atau sastra dari berbagai daerah dalam satu negara, maka ternyata bahwa rumusan sastra bandingan yang menekankan pada perbedaan negara, justru akan mengundang masalah konseptual. Dalam konteks itulah, perlu kiranya kita mempertanyakan kembali rumusan-rumusan sastra bandingan yang pernah ada.

Terakhir Diperbaharui ( Senin, 22 Juni 2009 04:12 )
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THE OPPRESSED WOMEN PDF Cetak E-mail
Ditulis oleh Maman S, Mahayana   
Selasa, 20 Januari 2009 03:52
THE OPPRESSED WOMEN :
Discussion on the Development of Indonesian Women Novel and its Comparison with the Malaysian and Indian Novels* * 

Maman S. Mahayana* 



Literature is the spirit of culture. It is born through a complicated process as the result of the literary persons’ anxieties upon the social condition in its tension with his culture. Sometimes, literature emerges as a social protest to portray the social condition at a particular time. It is also viewed as  the spirit of its age. And from there, literature contribute the particular insight  upon the social situation,  belief system, ideology, and individual expectation as the real representation of the national culture. 

In this context, studying literature of a nation has basically no difference from the attempt to comprehend the culture of a nation. In other words, learning culture of a culture will be incomplete without learning the existence of a related culture. Here the position of literautre can be taken its advantage as the entrance gate of understanding a particular nation. It does not only represent the social dinamic and condition of a particular era, but also the reflection of the thought development and literature of a particular society. Therefore, learning literrature and the attempt to express the richness of text, should not only use structural approach, but it should relate the culture with the socio cultureal which gives the spirit to a prticular text, either as the background problem, or as the expectation or vision as the foreground of a text.

Literary writers can actually be viewed as the representation of their societies and as the spriti of their ages. “Every society has its unique arts, every period has its own arts,” so did Armyn Pane[1] say that a writer does not only represent (the thought and culture) of his society, but also  represent the spriti and dynamic of its society and era. This thought is also revealed by Rene Wellek and Austin Warren that  literature is frequently considerd as the social portray to express the spirit of a particular age. “literature is an expression of society.”[2]

Compared to poetry or drama, novel is considered the close portray of social representation. It is so close that novel is sometimes related to the religious doctrines, norms and the real condition of a society, or even frequently related to the political power and government. Although this assumption cannot be generalized to all kinds of prose (:novel), in a particular cases, at least, we can use novel to see the dynamic of culture or social portray as well as the spirit of age. Here in this paper, we are going to discuss the social portray and the spirit of age by focussing on the woman issues in several Indonesian novels. The writer will also allude several Malaysian and Indian novel to complete the discussion.


The Journey of Indonesian Women Novelists

            The existence of the women in Indonesia, as seen an many countries, is losely related with the literary development. In Indonesian literary history, the birth and early development ofn Indonesian literature is frequently seen in the line of the development of Balai Pustaka. The historical fact is actually different. Actually, Indonesian literary development – as that of the Indonesian language – was born and developed according to the three lines.

First, it is through the private publishers, mainly the one managed by the Chinese descendant. According to the note of Claudine Salmon,[3]   the earlier mastery of this community to the printing machine facilitates them to establish publishers for books, magazine, and newspaper.[4]  Hence, they managed the publishing company earlier than that the natives.

Later, the natives also tried to establishe the publishing company.  Tirto Adhi Soerjo was the first native to start the publishin company, althogh the financial support was derrived from several regents and natives officials who take a sympathy to such attempt . He published newspaper called   Soenda Berita (February 1903) in Cianjur, which was contined with the publication of   Medan Prijaji in Jakarta (January 1907) and the first woman newspaper Poetri Hindia ( July 1908) in Batavia. Poetri Hindia provoked several women writers.[5]  After that, several publishers appeared various publishing company in Java,   Sumatera, and Minahasa. In Medan, Hamka and Helmi Yunan Nasution tried to publish a magazine entitled Pedoman Masjarakat (1935—1942). Several Hamka’s works were firstly published through this magazine. Since then, the publishing company managed by the natives got more and more spreading all over the cities in Indonesia.   Sutan Takdir Alisjahbana, also established the publishing company Dian Rakyat. This publisher then produced Belenggu, a novel by Armijn Pane.[6]  Publishing line also occured in   Medan, Tebingtinggi, and Bukit Tinggi (Sumatera Barat) as an indicator of the emergence of publishing companies established by the natives.

The second line is through mass-media –newspaper and magazine.  In Indonesian literary history, works published in mass media have never been mentioned as the part of Indonesian literary works. However, when we see the mass media published in the early twentieth-century (1903—1928),  it could not be denied that many literary persons were born outsied of Balai Pustaka lines. Even many contemporary women writers started their career through mass media. [7] 

The third is through Balai Pustaka publishingcompany. Considering that Balai Pustaka is the Dutch colonial institute, the books published by this institute should have the content in line with the colonial policy. The establishment of Balai Pustaka was actually to cope with the influence of readng materials published by the private or individual for whom were accused that “the businessmen has no sacred hearts.” [8] “Illegitimate reading” was then the stigma put to the books published by the private. Through Balai Pustaka is then the Indonesian literature was given the strong influence to the school curriculum.[9]

 Balai Pustakais strong and wide influence, is then not followed by the number of the writers and the amount of books published. In this case, quantitatively, the number of books, particularly novels published by the privates or non-Balai Pustaka publishers was much greater amount than those published by Balai Pustaka.[10]  Among the writers, three were women, such as  Paulus Supit (?), Selasih (=Sariamin =Seleguri), and Hamidah (=Fatimah Hasan Delais). In addition to the novels by Paulus Supit, Kasih Ibu (1932), by Selasih, Kalau tak Untung (1933) and by Hamidah, Kehilangan Mestika (1935),  Balai Pustaka  also put forward the general theme at that time like the problematic love story and the failed marriage.  The women agony as the result of the  men betrayal. The women characters, fell as the looser. However, in  Kasih Ibu, Paulus Supit described the mother character – a widow- who was successful to raise her children to become teachers.

From around 80 novels published by Balai Pustaka (1920—1941), only Kasih Ibu by Paulus Supit  does not put the woman character as a looser. Even, because of the woman character, the society becomes aware of the meaning of education.

Seen from the three lines of Indonesian literary development, the emergence of women writers actually took place outside of Balai Pustaka.[11]  Because Balai Pustaka  has ideological interest, supported by the government finance, it becomes the source of school reading, and its distribution was supported by the mobile libraries until the villages. Therefore the influence is much deeper to the society. Even, according to the Dutch colonial politics which tries to  put the Dutch as a big nation, high civilization, and act as the saviour, so the book published by   Balai Pustaka became the important reading in any level of education. Indonesian literatures develop as if it is the virtue of Balai Pustaka.[12]

Two novels published in the Japanese era, Cinta Tanah Air (Balai Pustaka, 1944) by Nur Sutan Iskandar, and Palawija (Balai Pustaka, 1944) by Karim Halim, seemd to represent the Indonesian literature at this age.  In these two novels, we would see that almost all the women characters show not only the spirit to defend the nation but also to participate in the war. Mothers, wifes, or daughters put their position as the motivators for the heroes. Even in    Palawija, the marriage of  Sumardi –teacher, native—and Sui Nio,  the chinese descendant, seemed to show the importance of unity in the spirit of Asian nation in the war of Great Asian .[13]

Thematically, pre-independence Balai Pustaka novels, thematically, did not mention about social, religious, or pornographic problems. However, the Islam image as seen on the description of a hajj was negatively put forward.  The description of women characters, except in Kasih Ibu and the novel published during the Japanese era, were mostly put as loosers, beaten by the deed of men characters. ***In the post independence periuod, there were increasing numbers of women writers. Some of them could be taken into account such as Arti Purbani (the wife of Husein Djajadiningrat) as the pioneer of this period through her novel Widiyawati (1949). The story itself actually has long disgression due to the long description of each character. However, the focus isthe man character Widiyawati (Widati) who has to face the family tradition holding the noble tradition. Other women writers such as Luwarsih Pringgoadisuryo, Titis Basino, Th. Sri Rahayu Prihatmi, Haryati Subadio (Aryanti), Marianne Katoppo, and N.H. Dini. The last mentioned has the extraordinary position through her novel Pada Sebuah Kapal (1973).[14] As a whole, the theme of the women novel was still around the individual problem: the problem of women solved by themselves. Actually there are still other novels such as Raumanen (1977) by Marianne Katoppo or Selembut Bunga (1978) and Getaran-Getaran (1990) by Haryati Subadio, but they still raise the domestic problems.  


Post-Reformation

        The new phenomenon now becomes a kind of movement in the Indonesian literary life as sen by post -Saman Ayu Utami.[15]  If  Nh Dini and Titis Basino as the senior writer successfully breakthrough and position themselves as the women writers equal to the man writers in their age, Ayu Utami through her novel, Saman (1998) seemed to be successfully spread the viral anxiety of the hidden talent of the other women writers and  Saman  position on the map of contemporary novels in the 1990decade seemed to be unbeatable . Her second novel, Larung (2001) is not as successful as her first, but Ayu Utami still hold the highest place in the contemporary Indonesian literature. 
       
Dewi Lestari through Supernova (2001) successfully established the new  mainstream” in the map of Indonesian novel by introducing the scientific descriptiona s the integral part of a story.[16] As also seen in  Ayu Utami’s,  the second novel of Dewi Lestari, Akar (2002) was still under the shadow of their first novel. Meanwhile,  Fira Basuki who starts her literariness through her novel  Jendela-Jendela (2001) which turns to be the first part of her trilogy, Pintu (2002) and Atap (2002).[17] complete the map of Indonesian contemporary novelists. Prior to Dewi Lestari and Fira Basuki, Naning Pranoto has previously emerged. She has written several novels, which no one knows that not many people talk about them. Actually she talk about something new in the Indonesian contemporary novel, such as the marginality of the political victims. Her two novels, Mumi Beraroma Minyak Wangi (2001) and Miss Lu (2003) for example, clearly wants to put the authoritary political power as the result of innocent victimization. Here, Naning deliberately describes the political cassualities in the oppressed position, although they know nothng about the political matters. Then, why should  they become the victims? On the hand of the authoritary regime, politics become a ghost who can terrorize anytime and to anybody he wants. Naning Pranoto has produced 15 novels, an amazing achievement. Her existence with her works, enrich the library of Indonesian novel. Aren’t the political novels frequently considered to destabilize the national stabilityduring the New Order? It can be said that Naning gives inspiritation to the other women novelst to raise the similar problems. Some of them are   Langit Merah Jakarta (2003) and Laras (2003) by Anggie D. Widowati. During the New Order, this kind of novel could be categorized as “taboo and dangerously influence the national stability “
         In the Langit Merah Jakarta, Widowati tries to portray the events prior to and post-revormation movement which successfully turn down the Suharto’s power. This novel seems to be an important footnote for the event surrounding the reformation movement. Different from  Langit Merah Jakarta, her second novel , Laras, Anggie D. Widowati reveal more abuse done by the new order officials  Orde Baru which is not far from corruption and manipulation. Beyond the story, Angie seemed to be talking about the concept of virginity. In this case, men are considered unfair in placing the concept. Laras, the character in this novel is the victim of the scandalous male. Hendra, the male character, ran away after seducing Laras virginity. Only after the though struggle of the women, then she return to the right path.
        
In the novel of Maria Etty, Hayuri (2004)  the character as the political victims were transparantly described.  Buntaran,  Hayuri’s father, is one of the political victims who later died in the Buru Island. Hayuri is the next victim although without her knowledge about what happens. She was raised in the trauma by her though mother. After she grew up, her love was stranded by her status as the daughter of the ex-political prisoner. Although the story is happy ending, it is eat least revealed that the suffering of the political victim is actually bitter. The stigma can come from everywhere, including the person who actually has nothing to do with the political affair.
       
In addition to the story related to the reformation movement and  the post-tragedy 1965, several women novelist shows their courage to raise the sexual problem as the theme of the novel. Say, the novel of  Nova Riyanti Yusuf, Mahadewa Mahadewi (Gramedia, 2003). Beyond, it shows  the explicitly sexual behavior of the characters, including the sexual intercourse between the asylum doctor and his patients and the “strange” love affair of the gay character (transexual and bisexual). Nova seems to criticise the social hypocrisy about sex. Therefore, when the biological needs urge, releasing the lust without any attempt to reveal it in the blanket of norms and social convention is a must.  That’s what Nova wants to express.
       
Djenar Maesa Ayu in her first novel,  Nayla (Gramedia, 2005),  also raises sexual deviation. As implied in several coverr notes “for adult readers” – also seen in her antology of short story, Jangan Main-Main (dengan Kelaminmu) (Gramedia, 2004)— Nayla raises sexual problem in the reference of personal scandalous behaviour which always lead to victim. Nayla is the victim if this bullshit: the sadistic mother, the mother lover: Uncle Indra who makes the servant pregnant. And he also frequently exhibit his male organ to Nayla which leads to sexual harrasment. Under the gloomy childhood, his father died and his mother brings her to an asylum. This sadness leads her tobe a lesbian and enjoyment of promiscuity. This makes her believe in love and happiness. Here, the sexual deviation is caused by the traumatic childhood. The result is more tremendous than what is expected, it is related to the psychological wound. Djenar would probably says that the psychological danger is bitter and uch more dangerous than the physical injury, particularly when it happens during the childhood.
       
Ana Maryam in Mata Matahari (Bentang, 2003)  also raises the problem of free sex and lesbianism. Therry seemed to enjoy her intimacy with Destano, her lover. Lola, Therry’s friend also enjoys the changing sexual partnership. One day, Destano enjoy Lola, and Lola also takes pleasure in him, although she knows that the man is her friend lover. And,what happens when Terry fins out the affair? Firstly, she is mad at Lola, but leads to lesbianism after Destano, who use the two women to insatiate his lust, leave them both.  In the end of the story, they decide to have one child respectively, while enjoying her lesbianism. 
      
If in the above novels, the sexual relationship is implicitly presented, not in the  Bukan Saya, tapi Mereka yang Gila (KataKita, 2004) by Stefani Hid, seks seemed to be deliberately presented in the whole story. In this novel, sex is positioned as the important part of the whole story. Here, sex is something that should exist. Therefore, throug the telephone, people could make sex and enjoy it through the phone, without having physical contact. The structure of the novel is closely similar to that of the blue film.  Although there is a chilhood memory of Nian – a divorced mother who remarried, and a father, a medical doctor who suffers from mental deviation – like no sexual desire. Sex should exist as if the daily activities become incomplete by the absence of sex. Life is as if to fulfil such desire. Isn’t the sexual deviation is closely related with the individual past. In this case, sex is put as sensation in the artificial and vulgar description. 
        The use of sex as the weapon of ideological struggle – and not as a mere embroidery – is seen on the   novel Ode untuk Leopold von Sacher—Masoch (2002) by Dinar Rahayu, Swastika (2004) by Maya Wulan – although both novel seem to build sensation — and Tabularasa (2004) by Ratih Kumala. In the novel by  Dinar Rahayu, masochism and transexual is wrapped in mitology. The myth of virginity to incrase the power of God and it is believed to reach the particular purpose, actually it is a mean of masculin legitimacy treating woman as cuisine.  Dinar Rahayu change the myth by putting male as cuisine, and women can fulfill their sexual desire with it. In the matter of sex, women actually are more powerful. So, with the power of sex, woman can dominate the man’s world. So, in this case, Dinar Rahayu seems to recreate a new mythology – particularly Greek and Scandinavia -  which is particularly transhistorical.  Isn’t the mytology is the pastness of event which cannot be historically taken into account?

            In Swastika, Maya Wulan uses the sexual problem as the mean of killing her desire in commiting sexual deviation. The main character, Swastika, feel the symptom of lesbianism when she feels aroused sitting close to her friends of her own sex.  Unfortunately, her friend Sila, always makes temptation. Under the shadow of fear, she can convince herself. On the opposite, she makes a sexual adventure from one man to another. Finally, she makes her mind to get married with Amrullah, a well-behaved man who studies in Kairo.

The the first night of her marriage,Amarullah who really loved Swastika was badly hurt. Although virginity is not the main point, Amarullah could not accept Swastika. What he thought is that Swastika is too honest and she is not anymore virgin. Is it her mistake to be a lesbian?

Hence,  Maya Wulan use sex as the mean of struggel to return the sexual desire according to the gender. Although Wulan does not confirm her position, she gives the awareness that the sexual lst is not as simple as expected. It is constructed through the longt process of individual historical life. therefore, the stigma to the homosex, lesbian , bisexual, and heterosexual, should be put proportionally by the consideration of various background.

            Ratih Kumala in Tabularasa, even see the problem of sexual intercourse as the universal human rights. He tries to raise her probulm through the spirit not to be dependent on one sex –male or female—.  Althought the idea is not the most important, Ratih tend to put the man sexual instinct as nothing dependent on the sex, ethnic, race, cultural tradition or religion. He emphasizes on the equality in human interaction, including the choice of partnership. When man or woman decides hius or her partner, wether it is  from different or similar sex, she has done her rights as human. So, why does man should marry with a man (homosexual), or a woman with her own sex (lesbianism) have to obtain social sanction? Isn’t it basically the same as that one who get married with the different sex? Isn’t the marriage not always related with the reproduction process? Everyone has his or her own rights to choose someone to be his or her partner of life, to have child or not. Isn’t the marriage with the same sex more responsible than that with different sex but abandon their children?

            In this novel, we don’t find any sexual performance. Ratih Kumala seems not to express vulgar words related to the sexual organ. Hence, the expression of marriage meaning, of choosing partners, whatever the sex is , then become the focus of this novel. This novel really successful in explaining sexual ideology without exposing sexual relationship. Here, Ratih convincingly brings the sex into the realm of universal ideology. A novel which smartly raise the sexual philosophy. From there, the aesthetics of the novel come and tempt the thought of the reader as an ideological message.


The Oppressed Women

            Various problem when in the New Order era are considered taboo, “dagerous for national stability” after reformation era becomes tries to be proposed, including the novels of women writers. In addition to the stories talking about the political victims and artifical sex, women tries to claim their rights on the equal position and the image of women according to the perspectife of tradition, culture, and religion. 

            Oka Rusmini in Tarian Bumi (2000) and Kenanga (2003), seems to rebel against custom and traditional culture  (Bali), and religion (Hindu—Bali) which subordinate the women position. In Tarian Bumi, the main character Ida Ayu Telaga Pidada, noble women who because of getting married with a lower caste  Wayan, lelaki dari kasta yang lebih rendah, is frequently accussed as the source of the family dissaster. At last,  Telaga willingly put of her nobility and live as a low caste women . In Kenanga,  the problem is more complicated. The main character has to face the forbidden love.   Kencana, her sister, get married with   Bhuana, the man who rape her. There, love should obey religous norm, the image of Brahmana caste, and amount of rules which ironically banned the freedom of women. Not to mention the scandal which should be kept secret in order to keep the caste positionl. The criticism toward the caste and nobility in Bali has also been put forward by   Putu Wijaya in Bila Malam Bertambah Malam.

The main character in those two novel appear as if the mouthspeaker of the writer who try to represent the gender problem in his society. There, the position of women, from any caste, remain to be in the powerless condition, when any affair is related to tradition, culture, and religion.   Novel Tarian Bumi and Kenanga become the important part of the Indonesian novel map, not onluy because of the local color power but also the Balinese cultural ethnicity containing the complicated gender problem full of manipulation.

            The character  of Ida Ayu Telaga Pidada in Tarian Bumi and Kenanga in Kenanga are the noble women- who because of their position- even could not enjoy their privileges as nobles. Financially, both live in affluent, but psychologically  and his rights as human, there is a discriminative treatment which put them in a subordinate position. It is done on behalf of custom, culture and religion.  

            Novel Namaku Teweraut (2000) by Ani Sekarningsih strongly raise the gendr problem in its relationship with the ethnic culture. The winner of the award from the  Yayasan Buku Utama in the year of 2000 convincingly present the social portray of the Asmat societies, Teweraut.in Papua. Teweraut, the main character  in  this novel, tells about her expectation, idealism, and the bitterness of a woman who was prisoned with her social norm and tradition. There, women is treated as “thing” by her owner. On the name of tradition, male becomes so powerful upon his “belonging”. Even when a wife get pregnant and want to deliver, she should be thrown from the society and placed in a small hut  in the remote area. The woman who delivers a baby is considered dirty and bring the failure to her community. 

            Still with the spirit to free herself from various stigma  cornering the woman position.  Abidah el Khalieqy in Geni Jora (2004) related to the circle of Javanese tradition and islamic dormitory (Islam). Although the rebellion is implicitely proposed, she seems to put forward a kind of soulutin to answer the problem, that is whth a smart and beautiful muslim – at least she acts beautifully. Only in this way that man appreciate woman. And only in this way that man will respect woman, and it is possible that man will be the looser – who likely or dislikely put the woman in the proportional position. The description of the main character Kejora  who was raised in an islamic traditional circle, islamic dormitory life, and her socialization with the islamic world, has incrase her awareness that tradition, culture, and (Islamic) religion is frequently abused and misstranslated to legitimate the male power over female. This view will only be rebelled if the women do not live in poverty and ignorance. 

            Several other woman novelist who try to put forward the ideal image of woman moslem, among others is Asma Nadia who has produced more than 25 novels, and other names who have not been noted.

            In general, the existent of women novelist in the map of contemporary Indonesian novel shows the changing of attitude in placing the woman and the woman position in the life of their societies, that is the tendency not to be prisoned in a domestic circle. The changing of this society is expressed fromt he theme related to the five stigmas such as: (1) political victims, (2)  social tradition and culture, (3) sexual problems, (4) religious interpretation as the mean of legitimation, and (5) domestic problem. Domestic problem, here is not merely related to  the life of a family, but the various problem which put the woman in a marginality, inferior, oppressed, and powerlessness. Dadaisme (2004) by Dewi Sartika, for example, describes that marriage on the name of tradition and social status becomes the source of deviant behavior. So, there is an  attempt to develop the domestic into public affair. 

            Among the women writers, particular note should be taken to  Nukila Amal. In her novel Cala Ibi (Pena Gaia Klasik, 2003) , Nukila Amal does not only use the technique and stile of narration which is quite complex and rich of interpreation which  fully depend on the reader, but also try to return to the essence of story telling. Therefore, she tells everything, anything, and whoever. Nukila Amal, with her experimentation, tends to emphasize the aspect of narration rather than the theme of the story with the gender aspect.  

            From the novel above, the woman character look stronger when facing the religious problem as seen in the  ovel Geni Jora by Abidah el Khalieqy and novel Tarian Bumi and Kenanga by Oka Rusmini. In their rebellion ,   Kejora has to face the tradition of the family in the islamic dormitory (pesantren) environment who put the woman only to stay at home. Since a long time ago, the framily tradition puts the woman in three “S” – Sex, Soup and Sew. Then, she also should face the social culture which stigmatize the woman. There, also exist the religious doctrine which is interpreted according to the male interst. Meanwhile, the mother position herself as the one who believe in the concept of :”following the husband”  swarga katut, neraka nunut –. Under the siege of myth and stigma, the main  character, Kejora, struggles to release herself. And from there, the awarenss that woman only get its freedom if she is not cuffed by ignorance and poverty.

Woman position   in Tarian Bumi and Kenanga actually is more complicated. The caste rules not only has its influence to the worldly life but also the concept of nirvana. The caste rules is a part of religious doctrin which has to be believed as the decission of God,  Hyang Widhi. Therefore, anybody should be able to life according to the rules. Anybody disobidient to the rules will lead an hard life both in the world and later could not enter the nirvana. However, there is still other complicated problem. A sequence of manipulation of the religious doctrine was deliberately committed, merely to keep the respect and the social status of the family., and to legitimize the male power on behalf of the religious sanctity.

            Religion as a mean of legitimation and manipulation of the decree as an attempt to eternalize of man power also popular in the novel of other countries. Let’s see  Pohon Tanpa Akar by Syed Waliullah (Bangladesh), Sutan Baginda by Shahnon Ahmad (Malaysia), or Istri untuk Putraku by Ali Ghalem (Aljazair). The male writers see how the religion can be used as the mean to cheat, manipulate power, and to legitimate male superiority. 
         
Observng the social status of the women characters (by the woman writers) in Indonesian novel since Balai Pustaka until now, we can say that most of them – except  Namaku Teweraut— are the educated woman from the upper clases. So what is the meaning of social status embeded to the woman character?  If literature is viewed as the social portray to express the spirit of age, it can be said that the description of the woman character in the Indonesian novel tend to represent the portary of the upper class Indonesian women. Let’s see the portray of Yah (Rohayah) in Belenggu by Armijn Pane. Although Yah is a prostitue, she is a high-class prostitute, who has mixed with a high officials. Yah becomes the prostitute not because of financial problem.  The unfair and discriminative treatment in the Indonesian contemporary novel only occurs in the middle class women, educated, or noble, and they do not represent to what happen to the lower class. This portray does not entirely represent the whole Indonesian women. Let see,the character of   Rasmani (Kalau tak Untung), Hamidah (Kehilangan Mestika), Rani (Di Atas Puing-Puing), Sri (Pada Sebuah Kapal), Mimi and Cyntia (Selembut Bunga) until the character in  in Saman or in the subsequent novel. All of them are educated, middle class, and event from the elite class. Then, the woman whose status will be struggled for is the status of the upper class women. Then, how about the portray of a middle class women related to the spirit of the age? Studying several novels by women writers since Balai Pustaka until novel Saman  Saman by Ayu Utami,  it will be clearly sen that the main problem is the domestic and family problem. The husband scandal is considered to be the source of family problems. Saman open the other perspective. It questions the demand of the male toward the virginity myth. IN addition,   Ayu Utami also tries to show her courage to destroy the myth of sex which is put under the private sector, not to be discussed in the public area. The other problem  in Saman is the scandal problem. If male freely commit affairs and change partners, why not women? But the woman in   in Saman  is the elite women, educated and has no obligation to think about material condition, and the demand on the human rights are mostly related to the sex problem: freedom of making affair and changing sex partners.    

Women: Papua—Malay—India
         How about the attempt of the woman writer to portray the life of  the poor pheasant woman which is more oppressed by poverty and ignorance? How about the destiny of woman migran workers, servants and the prostitue who live under the poverty line?  Up to now, only   Namaku Teweraut showing the woman character who struggle over her poverty and ignorance. Teweraut is a sort of Papuan women who wants to make progress, and makes her mind to be independent and help her sisters to free themselves from poverty and ignorance. But, she is sieged by the male superiority who  underestimate her, her culture postion women merely as to raise children, take care of the house, and in her belief system, women are frequently accused as the source of dissaster. Although Teweraut can go to school, because she is the daughter of the tribe-chief, when a priest offer her a new religion (Protestant) she is still inferior under the custom. All said by the tribe-chief is the word of God, including the matter of marriage. Teweraut should obey the  decision of the tribe-chief, nDiwi, her own father, who marry her with Akatpits, the Village chief, although the village chief has got five wives.  Look at the following quotation: “Kamu Cuma perempuan,” suara nDiwi terdengar menggelegar sekarang… “Tidak perlu banyak rencana. Sejak awal leluhur kita telah menggariskan, pekerjaan perempuan itu cukup untuk mengayomi keluarga, melahirkan anak, merawat and mengasuhnya, and mencari makanan yang bagus…”nDiwi tak dapat digoyahkan. Ia merasa tidak perlu menanggapi keberatanku. Keputusannya berlaku sebagai aturan yang tetap. Sebagaimana kebiasaan yang telah berlaku lama, kata-katanya adalah sabda yang paling benar and harus dipatuhi. (hlm. 64) You are just a woman,” said nDiwi loudly. “You need no many plan. Since the begining, our ancesstors have made decision that the works of women is to keep the family, give birth, take care, and look for good food....” nDiwi cannot be tempted. It is not necessary to accept my reluctance. His decission is fixed. As the custom, his word is the most righteous word to be obeyed. Finally, Teweraut becomes the sevent wife and should obey the husband. Luckily, she has the dancing skill. She later joins the cultrual mission to America, but under the control of her husband. After the death of her husband,  the power is then replaced by his brother. Hence, Teweraut appears as the representation of the Papuan women, who lead the life helplessly.  Namaku Teweraut  may represent the condition of village women in Indonesia .[18]  The image of woman as   Teweraut is not seen in  Syumul (1999) by Azmah Nordin (Malaysia).[19] This novel, in general,  looks like the   Indonesian novel written by women, that is to show the life of educated, elite,and modern woman.

Novel Syumul tells about the telecommunication business competition facing by  Hytech Communication (HC) and Syumul Teknologi Tinggi (STT). The competition reach its peak on the Seminar Commonwealth Te-lecommunication Council (CTC), until the launcing of Malsat A-1 satelite. Actually, the competition is caused the private competition of their officials. The working dissmissal , unhelathy competitions among its workers make the company worse. Even the sense of threat to a particular person, led him kick others using various means such as by sabotage and attempt of murcer. This become the central theme of this novel

            The theme of competition actually the mean of the writer to evoke various traits of the characters. Greed, ambition, arogance, cheat, hypocricy, egotism, inferiority, smartness, solidarity and other human traits appear with its respective background and foreground. Because of the unhealthy competition, every staff find misscommunication. Among the problem, there is a scandal between them, which is generally the male discourse, now becomes the female discourse.  Man, instead of women, become the sex object. 

            The problems get complicated, when the past trauma, the sequence of fear, anxiety, and stress become the problem of the characters. The problems have no space and time limit, so the thought can appear anytime, in a fragmetary form, which create the sequence of the story. As a result, event to event, and sometimes appear simultaneously to create a mozaic of a story. The thought description and the chaos of psychological condition of a particular character  can have no relation to what is seen at that time. It is possible to jump from from the past to the future. The fragmentary event dominates the sequence of events in  Syumul.

            The peak of all chaos finally terminated when the murder attempt is commited by two official of   HC.  As the result of this event, the elite of the company then aware that something wrong happen in the company. Therefore, each party shouldimprove themselves and keep the harmonious communication, eother with the family or with their working partners. Happy ending!

            The strength of this novel is actually lies on its experimentation.[20] Although written by women, there is an attempt of Azmah Nurdin to propose gender problem. As af as I know, this is the first malaysian novel who propose the gender transparantly. Inthis case, there is a powerlessness of the male character facing the women characters. Marius Taipun, Jeremy Kay Kay Kiew, Syed Hakim, Hadzim, in HC, for example, are underthe domination of Juwairiah. The affair of Erika Bacia Bahrin placing men as her sexual object shows the scandal discourse – as seen in the novel – does not only beling to the male. In this case, female which was previously the object of sex, no the other way around.  Look at the following quotation:

                        Erika Bacia Bahrin yang telah enam kali berkahwin and bercerai dengan lelaki-lelaki tempatan juga lelaki-lelaki dari negara Eropah, sebelum menjadi janda sekarang. Cuma perkahwinan-perkahwinannya itu agak sukar berkekalan; tempoh satu-satu perkahwinan antara dua minggu hingga enam bulan, sebelum Erika kembali ke minat asalnya, Hadzim. Ternyata, tidak satu pun perkahwinannya menghasilkan anak, and Leonei akui, barangkali inilah yang merupakan suatu hakikat sejarah yang memilukan bagi setiap wanita. And Kemudian, sudah ....            - Bagaimana dengan perhubungan antaramu and anakmu and Farid? Apakah cukup membahagiakan? “Kebahagiaan hidup bagi seorang wanita, tidak semestinya terletak kepada orang lelaki ataupun anak yang lahir dari rahimnya saja - sebaliknya dari in diri sendiri. Percayalah, kebahagiaan, keberanian, semangat, ketabahan - sebenarnya tidak membezakan jenis jantina.” Dia teringat Juwairiah pernah berkata begitu.

            ... beberapa kali pula Erika ditahan sama ada di tanah air mahupun di Eropah - akibat memandu ketika mabuk, sebelum ini. Memandu ketika bersama-sama salah seorang kekasih-kekasih sambilannya yang  disewanya secara tunai itu. (hlm. 145--146).

 

(Erica Bacia Bahrin  has married six times and got divorce both with the local and the European, before being a widow now. The marriage did not take long, only two weeks until six month, before Erica turn to her original lust, hiring gigolo. Actually, none of her marriage produces children, and Leonei confessed that this is the tragic historical event to the life of women. And then ...

-         How about your relation and Farid? Is it happy?”Woman happiness should neither rely on the man nor the baby comes out of her womb – it is on herself. Trust me that happiness, courage, spirit, does not rely only on the male or female.”She still remember that Juwariah said so.

-         .....several times Erica was arrested when she was having affair, here or in Europe, when she was drunk, and having affair with her gigolo in cash (page 145-146).

 

The citation above shows that how Erica Bacia can “play” the men as she like. She can hire the the gigolo, to express his position as a subject, and the male as the object.  

            The role of women superiority and the men inferiority, is seen at the characterization of  Juwairiah who replace the position of Farid, her husband, and in the family life,  Juwairiah also confirm her position. Hence, Juwairiyah show the real position of a woman which is equal to man. Look at the dialogue of Juwairiah with Wardah talking about Farid as follows:

            “Wardah, bagiku, masalah seperti itu - jika ia benar-benar suatu kenyataan - hanya masalah remeh-temeh ... barangkali,” ujar Juwairiah, lembut. Air mukanya sayu pilu. “Lagipun, aku tak punya kekuatan untuk memulakan hidup baru. Kerana seluruh kekuatan yang ada padaku, aku curahkan untuk menaikkan tarafku di matanya - dengan membina kerjaya yang lebih meyakinkan.”            “Biarpun lelaki itu memanandg rendah terhadap kerjayamu?”            “Hah, bukankah itu namanya ‘lelaki’? Ah, aku tak hairan lagi. Aku tak kisah pun. Kebanyakan lelaki sama saja.”            “Kecuali Syed Hakim?” soal Wardah, mengusik.

            “Ya, kecuali dia. Tapi sebahagian besar lelaki yang lain - ego melebih segala-galanya; tak mahu mengaku kalah, biarpun sudah kecundang,” tingkah Juwairiah, penuh emosi. (hlm. 43--44).

 

(Wardah, for me, if the problem is that – and if it is a reality – it is only a trivial matters...maybe,” said Juwairiah, softly, her face looks sad “Anyway, I don’t have any power to start a new life. Beause the whole power of me, was given to increase my status in front of his eyes.. by working harder.

             “Although if male underestimate to what you have done?”

             “Is that what man does? I am not surprised. I don’t say nothing. All men are similar.”

             “Except Syed Hakim?” asked Wardah, curiously.

              “Sure. Except him. But most of others ... egotism is more than enything.. He doesn’t want to confess his lost, although he is a loser,” said Juwariah emotionally.)

 

            In the other pages of the novel, the dominaton problem of male is frequently turned upside down. Women inferiority is replaced with superiority. The role of manin business, in the social life, and in the family life is marginalised, and replaced with the woman roles, as seen in the following quotation :

            Aku bebas, bebas ... bebaaas ...!” jeritku, tanpa sedar. Entah mengapa, tiba-tiba terasa tubuhku meruap panas, dadaku dikobarkan oleh nafsu berahi, seolah-olah emosiku sedang dilanda badai asmara yang membara berpanjangan; emosi yang terpenjara akibat sikap ketidakadilan ‘dia’ and mereka yang sejenis dengan ‘dia’; emosi yang kini bangkit kembali dengan kematian’dia’. (hlm. 125)

 

(I am free, free...free!” I screamed, unconsciously. I don’t know why, it seemd that my body get warmer, my chest was burn with passion, as if my emotion which is flooded with long awaited esire; emotion which is trapped as the result of injustice of “her: and who was in the same sex of :her’, emotion which now arrouses with her death)

 

            Although the writer, through her female characters, tend to give the message related with the gender, it seems that  Azmah Nordin still put them as the Malayan women. Juwairiyah still makes a compromy, and sometimes she obyeh the husband,which seems that the writer is still tolerant to the proportional position of a woman. Juwairiah  character  which still respect her husband as a husband, and tend to put family as priority rather than profession, shows the representation of the wirter attitude as the Malayan woman in keeping the custom, tradition, and culture in harmony.  

***

The description of marginalized woman as a result of custom,culture, and religion, seems to be more severe in the   novel Madu in Saringan (Nectar in a Sieve) by Kamala Markandaya.[21] It is a portray of Indian tragic life among the poverty and ignorance. Rusmani, Nathan’s wife, is the typical Indian woman who become the outcast – because of the marriage with Nathan, the outcast man. However, the awareness as the wife of a poor and honest farmer establishes her as the tough personality. All hopes should be grown. She tries not to be hopeless, she doesn’t want to surrender. Then, when Rukmani has not deliver a male baby, she should be pation praying to have a male baby[22] With all her patience, between the poverty and famine, Rukmane keep taking care of her family. She should be smartly spend the money for the future. Rukmany appear as the wife who can complete all her husband deficiency. . “Tempat seorang isteri mestilah di sisi suaminya,” (hlm. 168),  (The place of a wife is on the side of her husband), the the principle and the view of  Rukmani. Therefore, she appear as the completion, the motiator, and also as the defender of her husband. Rukmani is like an iron lady, the castle of the family, the protector of the children. With Nathan, Rukmini life in a sequence of agony. Nathan, finelly died when the couple life homelessly in the city. Rukmany return to her own home bringing an adopted child.

Although, at last  Rukmani doesn’t fall as a looser, we still see that the social norm (male domination), religion, and culture are established in such a way that it put the woman as the oppressed creature [23]  Beyond the severe description of the woman condition- as seen in the  Namaku Teweraut and Madu in Saringan— there is an implicit affirmation that women in anyway is more flexible, more patient, tougher, and more mature when facing the critical problem of life.

With this description, the reader indirectly gets the awareness, that woman oppression occurs everywhere on behalf of family status, social norm, cultural dignity, religious purity, and even on behalf of God. There are so many manipulation to be used as the mask to cover the women oppression.


Refusing  Strukturalism

            If this forum- as seen on theme of this seminar p is an attempt of making new approach – it is suggested to consider new aproaches which enable to evoke the cultural richness hidden beyond the texts, as the ideological message proposed by the writer and the root of the problems which put the woman in the oppressed position. Structuralism –which is also called intrinsic approach- which has so far dominated the literary approach in several educational institution, proved to be failure in evoking the cultural wealth beyond the texts, because text is considered to be autonomous structure, remoted from the problems outside the text.

For the structuralist, what happen in the literary word is trated something an sich without any relationship with the context. Therefore it is separated from the writer. The researcher or critics is only admited to communicate with the text, because the text is convinced to have its own completeness. As soon as the literature published, it becomes public property, it has no more relationship with the writer. Therefore, it has to be treated as the complete structure. Text becomes anything. It has no relationship with the creative process of the writers. It has no more relationship with the culture which deliver the text, nor the relationship with the context.  The peak of the structuralist belief is on  the statement of   Roland Barthes through his idea of: “the death of the author.”

            The result is that the cultural richness of the text is gone. Structure only talk about the relationship between elements and its functionality in establishing the textual discourse. It does not talk about the spirit of culture and the  anxiety and the ideology of the writer. Doesn’t literature exist, although it is the product of imagination, apear as the cultural tension and anxiety? Even the language of the text itself is the cultural product. The social existence of the society is also completd with language, and the society itself who complete the culture. And when it is manifested in the literary form, it actually brings the socio-cultural realities.

            Although masterpieces can also be analysed from various approaches, the richness of cultural and ideological meaning outside of the text will also be hidden in the text. Therefore, if structuralism will also be maintained, it is only in the position as the gate to the laboratory when people try to expose the cultural richenss of the test. Without it, text will be exiled and remoted from the cultrure who give it birth. Therefore, the most important thing is that the writer can raise the cultural meaning beyond the text. In this way, learning literature means learning the socio-culrual life surrounding the writers.

               Novel Namaku Teweraut, Syumul, and Madu in Saringan show how the gender problem is actually originated from a culture and social norm which is deliberately established to legitimised the power of men. There, a lot of  religious interpretation and belief system supporting the legitimation. Therefore, through the approach wich is not only originated from text, we try to reveal the abuse of religion. Islam, for example, support the position women equal with men but there are too many religious leares who change the dignity of women into the women oppression. There must be something wrong, or something misleading. So the awareness movement should start from revealing the manipulation of social norm, tradition, culture, and religion. The stigma of women should be terminated. And literature can be used as the gate of the activities. Here,t he socio-cultural or cultural studies  become one choice   to reveal the cultural richness of the text.

            In the end of this paper, I would like to say: Adios Strukturalism!          



*Paper on”ASEAN and India: Searching for New Approach” arranged by Global Association of Indo—ASEAN Studies in Hankuk University of  Foreign Studies, Seoul, South Korea,  November  2—4, 2007.

 

*Lecturer on the Faculty of Cultural Studies, Indonesian University

 

[1] Armijn Pane “Kesoesasteraan Baroe” Poedjangga Baroe, No. 1—5, Th. I, Djoeli—November  1933.

 

[2]Rene Wellek and Austin Warren, Teori Kesusastraan, transl. Melani Budianta, Jakarta: Gramedia, 1989.

 

[3] Claudine Salmon, Sastra Cina Peranakan dalam Bahasa Melayu, Jakarta: Balai Pustaka, 1985

 

[4]See also  Maman S. Mahayana, “Perintis Sastra Indonesia Modern,” and “Perintis Newspaper and Magazine Wanita,” published in  Matabaca, Januari 2007, hlm. 20—23. 

[5]About the role ofTirto Adhi Soerjo,  look Pramoedya Ananta Toer, Sang Pemula, Jakarta: Hasta Mitra, 1985. About the pers history in Indonesia, look Abdurrachman Surjomihardjo, et.al. Beberapa Segi Perkembangan Sejarah Pers di Indonesia, Jakarta: Kompas, 2002 (Cet. I: 1980) and Ahmat Adam, Sejarah Awal Pers and Kebangkitan Kesadaran Keindonesiaan, Jakarta: Hasta Mitra and Pustaka Utan Kayu, 2003. About the history of publication and printing , look Md. Sidin Ahmad Ishak, Penerbitan & Percetakan Buku Melayu 1807—1960, Kuala Lumpur: Dewan Bahasa and Pustaka, 1998.

 

[6]Manuscript of  novel Belenggu at the beginning was offered to Balai Pustaka, but it was turned down because it was considered not to be appropriate to the policy of Balai Pustaka. Rinkes  Note (1910) explicitly mentions three categories in selecting the published texts. They are (1) has no anti-colonial government content (2) does not offend feeling and ethic of particular community (3) does not offend particular religion. In the Nota Rinkes policy, it is natural that Balai Pustaka novels tend to show the caricature characters and the black and white problems surrounding marriage and home life.  Belenggu was considered incompatible with the requirement of Balai Pustaka. This novel tells about the scandal between  Sukartono (Tono) with Rohayah (Yah),a whore and the description of  Kartini (Tini) –Tono’s wife, who are active in a various women movement. The similar destiny happened also to the novel of Suwarsih Djojopuspito, entitled Manusia Bebas (Jakarta: Djambatan, 1975). This novel was actually written in 1937 in the Sundanese language. After translated to Bahasa Indonesia, then sent to   Balai Pustaka, but it was also refused because the content talked about nationalism. Not until  1940,  the novel was then published in   Utrecht, Netherland, with the introduction by E. D. Perron, entitled Buiten het Gareel (Di Luar Garis). Related to the description of the women character in Belenggu and Manusia Bebas, the Dutch colonial government deliberately seemed to make  a systematic discrimination for women in public. The workds for women only teacher, housemaid, plantation workers, and concubine. The dutch attitude in legitimating the concubine is the other form of women harazement. After Dutch women came from Europe, the concubine life still existed but not allowed to be registered in the Civil Office. Only after the Ethic Policy was applied, then the women school started to be opened, only native women with a certain status were admitted. After graduation, the women were only allowed to be a teacher, and not as the beaurocrat in the government.

[7]It was noted that in two decades  (1908—1928) at least 15 magazine wanita were published in  Indonesia. In this magazines,  there were many short stories, poem, and feuleton by women writers. The content is mostly awareness for women to go to school in order that women cannot be treated inhumanly by men. Look, the report of research by Maman S. Mahayana, Magazine Wanita Awal Abad XX (1908—1928). Depok: Universitas Indonesia, 2000 (unpublished).

                [8] This is the statement of   Dr. D.A. Rinkes, the  Balai Pustaka Director, to show his attempt in creating the negative image to the private publishers. Look  Bureau voor de Volkslectuur: The Bureau of Popular Literature of Netherlands India (1930?), page 8 et seqq.

 

                [9] On November 22nd, 1809 Governor Jeneral Daendels established the State Owned Publisher  (Landsdrukkerij) as a merger between the private and the state printing company. Several printing companies belong to the individuals (Dutch or Indo-Dutch) and Missionary did not develop because of several restrictions from the government. Actually, when   Balai Pustaka  was established (1908; 1917), private publishers could not compete with the state publishers. First, the state owned publishers had much better system and facilities  than the private. Second, the restriction applied to the private publishers. It means that Balai Pustaka had no significant rivals, both on the capital, and distribution to schools. Until 1941, for example, around 1400 libraries –outside of the public libraries established by the government- subscribed the Balai Pustaka’s books. Until 1930, the library subscribers reach the number of 2.700.000. This shows the good distribution of books reaching the remote villages.

 

[10] When the Comission for the Native School and Folk Libraries (Commissie voor de Inlandsche School en Volkslectuur) was established (1908) until it changed into the Office of Folk Library  (Kantoor voor de volkslectuur) 22 September 1917,  among the manuscripts are 598 in Javanese, 204 are in  Sundanese, and 96 in Malayan. Up to 1928, Balai Pustaka published no more than 20 novels, meanwhile the private publishers, particularly the Chinese, between  1903—1928, published more than hundreds original novels from 15 chinese descendant writers. Several novels are re-published. Note of Claudine Salmon mention that there were 3005 titles written by the chinese writers.

 

[11] As far as I know, no research was conducted to reveal the emergence of women outside of Balai Pustaka along with the offered themes. So we still have to see how far were the women writers express their aspiration.  However,    from 15 women magazines published between 1908—1928, I saw that they try to see the importance of education, skill, and keep their own respect as women. Look the report of   Maman S. Mahayana, Majalah Wanita Awal Abad XX (1908—1928). Depok: Universitas Indonesia, 2000 (unpublished).

 

[12] The influence of Balai Pustaka get stronger when the Indonesian literary critics seem to agree with   A. Teeuw, the Dutch critic, who has also his own ideological interest. In this condition, schools and faculty of letters seemed to despise the function of private publishers. Popular literature and literature outside Balai Pustaka is considered inapropriate to be studied at schools. Even, Roolvink said that this literature is just a cheap-literature  (stuiversroman), which is a derigatory nickname to despise the existence of popular novel. Therefore until 1980  Balai Pustaka  image still remain firm to be the only publishers for Indonesian literary life.

 

[13]In the Japanese period, Balai Pustaka was put under the Cultural Center (Keimin Bunka Syidosyo), which function as a censor institute as well as a center of Japanese propaganda , Tripple- A (Japanese as the shine, spirit and protector of Asia) through culture and literature.

 

[14]As far as I know, most of the Indonesian women novel tend to raise the domestic problem. Love, marriage problem meet the social status and cultural tradition. Nh Dini’s novel,  Pada Sebuah Kapal, basically raise the problem of marriage (international) – as that of  Salah Asuhan.  However. the character Sri is described to tresspass the Javanese Tradition in her premarital intercourse with Mchel and Charles, her husband.

 

[15]Ayu Utami in Saman, does not only destroy the social view toward virginity, pre-marital intercourse, affair, and marriage – which she says as the “hypocritical scandal”, but also put forward as a kind of deconstruction toward the patriarchy regime. I think,  Saman  successfully put itself as the inspiring monument and as the stepping stone for the other women writer in translationg the women concept, sex and integrating its ability to the total story. Unfortunately, women writers mostly translate the concept explicitely without puting it into the spirit of the text. It should be noted that Saman shows that women characters living in an urban environment.  It is understandable that the “rebellion” against patriarchy regime does not touch the rural women. The problem of rural women was even worse than that of the urban people. It is not merely the problem of sexual relationship but   it involves the problem of culture, tradition, and religion. So   Saman actually represent the modern women – urban which is coincidentally non-moslem .  Several women novels which describe sexual matters, the women there was the product of modern society—city. So, the ideological rebellion only allude the problem of modern urban women. 

[16]There are two innovation put forward in  Supernova. First, the scientific description as the integral part of the whole story . In the European literature, this kind of novel belongs to  science fiction. Second, it involviesthe description of the gay character, Dhimas and Ruben. Although Nano Riantiarno in  Cermin Merah (2004) raise the problem of gay earlier, Supernova  was published much earlier (2001).

 

[17] Following the three novels, the next novels: Biru (2003), Ms. B (2003), Panggil Aku B (2003), Rojak (2004) were published. It is not noted how many novels of her were published.

[18] Description of rural women oppression because of stupidity, poverty, power, and man domination, excellently shown by Ahmad Tohari in his novel Ronggeng Dukuh Paruk (Jakarta: Gramedia, 2003: Cetakan Pertama 1982). It seems to me that this is the Indonesian novel which shows the rural women oppression.

[19] This novel won   Esso-Gapena I award (1993) dan and was published by  Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka 1999. Other Azmah Nordin’s novel also raise the gender problem about the hospital life  (Pusat Rawatan Pantai Kasih). Throguh Doctor Raiha narration, the scandal is revealled, including that of  Raiha’s husband, doctor Wang and Raiha’s former husband, doctor Sadiz. In this novel , Azmah Nordin  still put the women position equal with man. Even in some events, Nurdin shows the appreciation of roles put by man. Such image of women was not seen in Syumul, although in the end of the story, the men hold the position respected by women.

[20]Some experiments conducted by  Azmah Nordin in this novel involves more on the technique of narration, as seen in the form of the changing narration and the use of punctuation to show the changing narration. .

[21]Kamala Markandaya, Madu in Saringan, translated by. Mokhtar Ahmad. Kuala Lumpur: Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka, 1988.

 

[22]Several ethnic beliefs show, for example in   Batak, Chinese, or Papua, that delivering a female baby is considered as dissaster. A good wife should be able to give male babies. It is clearly seen that the discrimination has been started since infant period. This novel telss that Ira, daughter of Rukmaani has god married since the age of 14 (Rukmani itself got married in the age of 12). Having no children after five year of marriage, the husband  returns Ira to her parents with the reason that the wife is infertile.  In the end, it is shown that the girl can get pregnant. (page. 76—78).

 

[23]Compare the Kamala Markandaya novel with  Bumi yang Subur by Pearl S. Buck. In her novel,  Buck describes women chinese character  (Olan) – although with her complete oppression —appeared as  motivator,  who later brings her husband  (Wang Lung)  as the influential landlord. Even Wang Lung later established Wang dinasty who dominates several areas in China.

Terakhir Diperbaharui ( Kamis, 22 Januari 2009 07:47 )
 
Depok dari masa pra kolonial PDF Cetak E-mail
Jumat, 07 November 2008 08:00

DEPOK DARI MASA PRAKOLONIAL KE MASA KOLONIAL

MODEL OTDA1 A LA CHASTELEIN DAN PERKEMBANGANNYA

 

oleh Lilie Suratminto*2

 

Abstrak

 

Nama Depok sejak akhir tahun delapan puluhan abad lalu dan di awal abad duapuluh satu ini semakin mendunia terutama setelah kepindahan Kampus Universitas Indonesia ke Depok pada tahun 1987. Sebenarnya nama Depok sudah dikenal dunia sejak abad ke 17 saat Indonesia masih dikuasai oleh badan Usaha Dagang Belanda di Asia (VOC ‘Vereenigde Oost Indische Compagnie’). Banyak tulisan tentang Depok, yang ditulis oleh para pendeta yang bertugas di Hindia-Belanda, para sejarawan, para musafir Barat. Mereka melaporkan tentang masyarakatnya, pusat seminarinya, dan lain-lain. Makalah ini menyorot tentang masyarakat Depok pada masa Prakolonial dan Masa Kolonial. Pada masa kolonial Depok menjadi terkenal bekat kerja keras Cornelis Chastelein seorang pejabat Kompeni yang mengusahakan pertanian di wilayah Depok ini yang menjadikan Depok sebagai penyangga kebutuhan pokok sehari-hari warga Batavia pada masa itu. Karena status tanah yang dibeli oleh Chastelein adalah tanah partikelir, hal ini memungkinkannya sebagai tuan tanah bertindak seolah-olah sebagai ’raja kecil’ di wilayahnya, Hal ini memungkinkan Cornelis Chastelein untuk mewujudkan cita-citanya untuk membentuk sebuah komunitas Kristen yang aman, tenteram dan mandiri seolah sebagai negara kecil di dalam negara besar, di bawah Pemerintahan Tinggi (Hoge Regereing ) yang berkedudukan di Batavia. Hal ini direalisasikan dengan pembebasan bersyarat (mardijkers) bagi mantan budak-budaknya yang dibagi menjadi 12 marga. Dengan diberlakukannya Undang-Undang Agraria (Agrarische Wet) tahun 1870, pada tahun 1871 wilayah Depok ditetapkan menjadi sebuah daerah otonom di bawah keresidenan Bogor, dengan kepala daerah seorang Presiden yang dibantu oleh seorang sekretaris, bendahara dan dua orang komisi. Mereka ini dipilih secara langsung dalam rapat warga. Para pemimpin yang dipilih adalah orang yang jujur dan penuh dedikasi, Dengan Reglement van het land Depok 1871 ini memungkinkan Depok dipimpin oleh orang-orang yang jujur karena kesempatan untuk menyalahgunakan uang kas daerah sangat kecil. Daerah otonomi ini tidak dilengkapi angkatan bersenjata. Keamanan diurus oleh warga Depok sendiri yang dibiayai oleh kas daerah. Depok adalah contoh sebuah daerah otonom yang mandiri yang penduduknya sangat multi kultural dan multi etnis. Keperbedaan agama di Depok sejak masa kolonial tetap dijunjung tinggi, ini nampak dalam hubungan yang erat antara warga Depok asal yang mayoritas beragama Kristen dan Depok asli yang beragama Islam, serta orang Cina yang ebragama Budha. Berdasarkan kenyataan-kenyataan tersebut mudah-mudahan sejarah Depok masa lalu dapat menjadi pelajaran bagi para pimpinan penentu kebijaksanaan pemerintah Depok di masa kini dan yang akan datang, sehingga tercipta suatu masyarakat yang aman, tenteram, damai sentausa seperti yang idam-idamkan oleh setiap warga Depok.

 

Latar Belakang

 

Untuk memupuk apresiasi terhadap warisan budaya kolonial, beberapa kali mahasiswa Program Studi Belanda dan juga para dosen tamu dari Belgia dan Belanda mengadakan studitour ke Depok. Tour de Depok dibagi dalam dua jenis yaitu Tour historis di Depok Lama dan Tour magis di daerah Depok Beji dan sekitarnya. Tour historis dimaksudkan sebuah tour berbekal pengetahuan sejarah Depok yang sumbernya dapat ditelusuri di arsip atau perpustakaan, misalnya yang tersimpan di Arsip Nasional Indonesia maupun di Den Haag, Perpustakaan Nasional Jakarta dan lain-lain. Tour yang berikut disebut tour magis karena yang dilihat adalah koleksi senjata yang tidak dapat ditelusuri asal-usulnya dalam sumber pustaka. Senjata-senjata tersebut dikeramatkan dan kini tersimpan di bawah pohon beringin besar, yang tidak jauh dari situ ada pemandian si Pitung yang menurut pekuncen pada setiap malam tanggal satu bulan Muharam (Suro) banyak didatangi peziarah dari berbagai tempat untuk mandi dan bermalam di situ untuk melakukan penyuwunan ’permohonan pribadi’ pada Yang Maha Kuasa.

Jika orang Jawa suka sekali permainan singkatan atau jarwa dosok demikian pula masyarakat Depok senang mengotak-atik nama Depok dengan berbagai interpretasi, misalnya:

DEPOK kepanjangan dari De Eerste Protestante Onderdaan Kerk ’ Gereja Abdi Protestan Pertama’; DEPOK =Deze Eenheid Predikt Ons Kristus ‘ Persekutuan ini mengabarkan Kristus kita’, ada lagi DEPOK = De Eerste Protestante van Kristenen’, dan pada tahun 1977 DEPOK = Daerah Elit Pemukiman Orang Kota’.

 

Ada kebiasaan dari orang asing baik Portugis maupun Belanda menuliskan nama daerah tertentu sesuai dengan bahasa mereka. Nama-nama ini statusnya sama dengan kosa kata pinjaman dari bahasa lain (loan word) dan kemudian sedikit-banyaknya disesuaikan dengan kaidah bahasa sendiri (Kridalaksana 1993: 100), misalnya kata Banten è Bantam, Gresik è Grissee, Chirebon è Cheribon, Pecenongan è Pecengongnang. Untuk kata ’depok’ tidak mengalami proses yang demikian karena sifatnya secara fonologis tidak asing bagi bangsa Belanda. Dalam bahasa Belanda terdpat kata kapstok, wandelstok, bok, onderrok, dan sebagainya yang berakhiran -ok. Jadi dari awal sebelum masa kolonial, nama daerah ini adalah Depok. Kata depok dalam bahasa Sunda bermakna ’duduk’, sedangkan depok dapat bermakna ’tempat berguru’, ’tempat menuntut ilmu’. Dalam pewayangan setelah adegan goro-goro biasanya diikuti adegan di padepokan di mana seorang kesatria diikuti para punakawan sedang menghadap seorang begawan untuk mohon petunjuk bagaimana mengatasi keruwetan negara. Perpindahan Universitas Indonesia ke Depok adalah sebuah pilihan yang tepat, karena di tempat ini sejak dahulu adalah tempat mengajarkan ilmu pengetahuan.

Pada Masa kolonial Depok ini adalah tempat menuntut ilmu bagi calon-calon pendeta karena pada mulanya hanya Depok sebagai pusat seminarium dari berbagai zending di Hindia-Belanda. Murid-murid seminari datang dari Nias, Tapanuli, Sunda, Jawa Tengah, Jawa Timur, Sangir/Talaud, Halmahera, bahkan dari Papua.

Pada masa pra-kolonial Depok adalah pusat perguruan dari prajurit-prajurit Banten dalam rangka perlawanan terhadap Kerajaan Pajajaran yang pada tahun 1522 Raja Surawisesa mengadakan perjanjian dengan Portugis, yang sangat ditentang oleh kerajaan-kerajaan pesisir yang pada waktu itu telah memeluk agama Islam (Heuken 1999: 55-61).

 

Depok Masa Prakolonial

 

Pada masa prakolonial wilayah Depok ini termasuk wilayah Cirebon berbatasan dengan wilayah kesultanan Banten. Diperkirakan pada masa perlawanan antara kesultanan Banten di bawah Sultan Ageng Tirtayasa dengan Sultan Haji di bawah pengaruh VOC, wilayah Depok ini menjadi pusat menyusun kekuatan prajurit-prajurit Banten dalam perlawananya terhadap Kompeni. Setelah Sultan Ageng Tirtayasa ditawan Belanda di Batavia (14 Maret 1683), Depok kemungkinan besar pernah dijadikan markas atau tempat persinggahan sisa-sisa prajurit Banten yang tidak mau menyerah yang dipimpin Syeh Yusuf. Baru setelah Syech Yusuf tertangkap (14 Desember 1683) dan diasingkan di Afrika Selatan, keadaan di Depok pun tenang (Michrob, Hawany dan Mudjahid Chudari 1993: 157-158). Mengenai kebenaran asumsi ini, perlu dilakukan penelitian sumber-sumber sejarah secara lebih mendalam.

 

Depok Masa Kolonial

 

Sejak tahun 1683 keadaan di Jawa Barat khususnya wilayah Banten dan Batavia sudah tenang. Tahun itu adalah tahun puncak kejayaan VOC karena dengan jatuhnya Banten di bawah pengaruh VOC berakhir sudah masa perlawanan kerajaan-kerajaan besar di Asia Tenggara. Untuk menjamin ketenangan tersebut didirikan benteng Speelwijk di Banten (1685) untuk membungkam Banten dari percaturan dunia internasional. Sejak saat itu VOC mulai bertindak sebagai pengatur pemerintahan di Nusantara. dan sejak saat itu pula orang Belanda mulai berani berusaha jauh di luar tembok Batavia. Di beberapa tempat sudah mulai dibangun villa-villa (landhuizen) antara lain Pondok Gede, Cimanggis, Tanjung Oost dan Pancoran Mas Depok. Banyak orang Cina Banten menjadi pemilik tanah partikelir yang luas. Antara lain Tio Thiong Kho yang menjual sebagian tanahnya kepada Cornelis Chastelein seorang pejabat Kompeni di Batavia.

 

Cornelis Chastelein Pendiri Komunitas Kristen Depok

 

Cornelis Chastelein (lahir pada tanggal 10 Agustus 1657) adalah putera bungsu Anthonny Chastelein dari 6 saudara perempuan dan dua saudara laki-laki. Ibunya yang puteri walikota Dordrecht bernama Maria Cruydenier. Antonny Chastelein tinggal di kota La Rochelle, Prancis. Ia adalah seorang Hugenot yang sangat puritan. Hugenot adalah sebutan untuk pengikut ajaran Kristen Protestan Calvin di Prancis. Pada masa Raja Louis XIV orang-orang Hugenot banyak diburu, ditangkapi, disiksa dan dibunuh. Puncaknya adalah peristiwa malam Bartholomeus, pada saat seorang pemimpin Hugenot menikah dengan seorang wanita bangsawan yang Katolik, banyak orang Hugenot datang dari berbagai daerah berbondong-bondong untuk menyaksikan pesta pernikahan dua aliran yang berbeda yang sangat bersejarah tersebut, tetapi atas izin Du Medici puluhan ribu orang Hugenot pada malam itu, pada saat mereka sedang tidur, dibantai oleh orang Katolik. akibatnya puluhan ribu orang Hugenot menjadi korban. Anthony Chastelein bertekad melarikan diri ke Dordrecht Belanda, kemudian ia menikah dengan Maria Cruydenier putri Walikota Dordrecht, yang juga pengurus Kamar dagang WIC (West Indisch Compagnie). Anthony bersama istrinya kemudian pindah ke Amsterdam untuk bekerja pada kamar dagang VOC di sana. Bukti bahwa Chastelein adalah orang Prancis nampak dari lambang heraldiknya yang sama dengan lambang heraldik Johan de Mauregnaults (1541-1587) yang membantu Willem I dan sebagai kapiten komando regiment Walonia pada saat pendudukan kota Harlem oleh Spanyol dalam Perang 80 Tahun. (lihat lambang heraldik C. Chastelein berikut ini):

Gambar1: Lambang heraldik C. Chastelein

Pada tanggal 24 Januari 1674 Cornelis Chastelein berlayar ke Batavia menumpang kapal ’t Huis te Cleff dan sampai di Batavia pada tanggal 16 Agustus 1674, setelah menempuh perjalanan yang melelahkan selama 233 hari. Di Batavia ia bekerja pada VOC yang berkantor pusat di Kasteel Batavia sebagai tenaga akuntansi. Ia adalah pekerja yang sangat rajin dan penuh dedikasi. Hubungannya sangat baik dengan Gubernur Jenderal Camphuys yang terkenal supel dan penuh toleransi. Bekerjanya kurang nyaman setelah Gubernur Jenderal Camphuys digantikan oleh Van Outhoorn. Ia juga kurang begitu cocok dengan Van Outhoorn. Pada tahun 1682 ia menjabat sebagai usahawan toko besar di Batavia dan pada tahun 1691 ia daingkat menjadi Saudagar junior (onderkoopman) di Kastil Batavia. Ketidakcocokannya dengan Van Outhoorn mencapai puncaknya saat Johan van Hoorn menantu Van Outhoorn diangkat menjadi atasan langsung Cornelis Chastelein. Pada tahun 1691 ia mengajukan permohonan berhenti dengan hormat dengan alasan sakit. (Resolutie van den Gouverneur-generaal en Raden van 22 September 1691) (De Bannier 1914 :1).

Pada tahun 1704 ia diangkat sebagai anggota luar biasa (extra ordinair) Dewan Kastil Batavia dan bertindak sebagai Saudagar Kepala (Opperkoopman), dan pada tahun 1696 ia membeli tanah Mampang (kini di sebelah selatan Depok di kecamatan Grogol berbatasan dengan kecamatan Krukut) dan Depok. Pada bulan November 1708 dia diangkat menjadi anggota biasa Dewan Hindia Belanda. Tahun 1709 sebagai komisaris politik dewan gereja dan pengawas tanggul dan pengairan (heemraden) Batavia dan Anggota Dewan Kehakiman Batavia. Pada tahun 1710 ia diangkat sebagai Presiden Pengurus Anak Yatim Piatu suatu jabatan yang sangat terhormat dan memberikan banyak kesempatan untuk memperkaya diri.

Ia menikah dengan Catharina van Quaelberg (kemungkinan keponakan sendiri karena ayahnya menikah dengan seorang bernama Henriette Chastelein). Dalam perkawinan ini mereka hanya dikaruniai seorang anak laki-laki bernama Anthony Chastelein. Di samping itu ia juga menikah dengan warga pribumi (Bali) dan memperoleh seorang anak perempuan bernama Maria Chatelein.

Chastelein meninggal pada tanggal 28 Juni 1714 pada jam 4 sore. Sebelum meninggal Cornelis Chastelein telah membuat surat wasiat untuk anak-anak dan para budaknya. Isi dari surat wasiat tersebut merupakan cita-cita Chastelein untuk membentuk suatu komunitas Kristen dengan sistem pemerintahan dalam pemerintahan atau semacam otonomi daerah dewasa ini.

 

Tanah Chastelein Tanah Partikelir

 

Pada anggal 18 Mei 1691 Cornelis Chastelein membeli sebidang tanah, yaitu wilayah Depok, Mampang dan Karang Anyar seharga 700 ringgit (rijkdaalders) dari seorang tuan tanah Cina Tio Tiong Ko. Tanah ini dibeli dengan hak eigendom. Dalam Burgerrecht art. 570 :

.`.`. Eigendom is het recht om van een zaak het vrij genot te hebben, en daarover op de volstrekste wijze te beschikken, mits men er geen gebruik van maken, strijdende tegen de wetten op de openbare verordeningen, daargesteld door zodanige macht, die dartoe de bevoegdheid heeft , en mits men aan de rechten van anderen geen hinder toebrengt, als behoudens de onteigening en algemene nutte tegen behoorlijke schadeloosstelling, ingevolge de wettelijke bepalingen.

 

‘hak eigendom adalah hak untuk dengan leluasa menikmati kegunaan suatu benda (tanah) itu dengan kekuasaan yang sepenuhnya, satu dan lain asal tidak bertentangan dengan masing-masing undang-undang dan peraturan-peraturan lainnya yang ditetapkan oleh badan-badan penguasa yang berwenang dan tidak mengganggu hak-hak orang lain’.

 

Di Depok Cornelis Chastelein berusaha merealisasikan keinginan-keinginannya. Tanah yang dibeli itu adalah tanah partikelir.

 


Gambar 2: Peta Depok

 

Tanah partikelir adalah tanah yang memiliki sifat dan corak yang istimewa. Di mana tanah ini memiliki hak yang bersifat kenegaraan, yang disebut “landheerlijke rechten” atau hak-hak pertuanan. Hak pertuanan misalnya: hak mengangkat dan menghentikan kepala kampung, hak menuntut kerja paksa, hak mengadakan pungutan-pungutan, baik yang berupa uang maupun hasil bumi dari penduduk, hak untuk mendirikan pasar, hak memungut biaya pemakaian jalan dan penyeberangan, hak untuk mengharuskan penduduk memotong rumput, dan macam-macam hak lagi atas tuan tanah pada tanah partikelirnya. Dengan adanya hak-hak pertuanan itu, maka tanah-tanah partikelir tersebut seakan-akan merupakan negara dalam negara. Oleh karena itu Chastelein sebagai seoraang tuan tanah dapat dengan leluasa seperti seorang ’raja kecil’ mengurus tanahnya serta semua yang diam di atas tanah tersebut.

Cornelis Chastelein sebagai seorang saudagar mempunyai satu tujuan yaitu ingin memanfaatkan tanah tersebut demi kepentingan perdagangan. Sebagai seorang saudagar ia tahu tanaman-tanaman apa yang dapat laku di pasaran dan ini pasti banyak menghasilkan uang. Di samping itu sebagai seorang pemeluk agama Kristen Protestan yang sangat puritan, ia ingin meneruskan cita-cita ayah dan kakeknya yaitu membentuk sebuah komunitas Kristen yang sealiran. Oleh karena itu dalam wasiatnya ia susun sedemikian rupa sehingga akan terbentuk suatu komunitas Kristen yang ia cita-citakan. Bahwa ia membebaskan budak 60 tahun lebih dulu dari pengesahan undang-undang anti perbudakan di Amerika, ia bukanlah seorang pionir, karena pemerintah Kompeni pun membebaskan budak-budaknya dengan syarat mereka harus masuk agama Kristen Protestan saat Kompeni mengalahkan Malaka pada tahun 1641. Para tawanan yang berstatus budak tersebut selanjutnya disebut kaum mardijker ’orang merdeka’. Mereka bermukim di sekitar Gereja Sion atau Portugeesche Buitenkerk dan sisanya kini masih bermukim di daerah Tugu Jakarta Utara.

 

Tanah Garapan

 

Semasa Cornelis Chastelein masih hidup, para budak itu harus bekerja di sawah dan membantu di rumahnya untuk menyelesaikan berbagai macam pekerjaan. Kekayaan Cornelis Chastelein begitu berlimpah karena kerja keras para budaknya. Pada saat ia membeli tanah, di atas tanah tersebut sudah ada penduduknya yang merdeka. Mereka ini disebut orang Depok asal. Mereka statusnya sebagai penggarap maro pada Chastelein. Untuk lebih meningkatkan hasil bumi didatangkan orang-orang dari Sulawesi, Timor dan Bali. Mereka adalah budak-budak yang dibeli di Batavia. Pada saat Chastelein masih hidup semua budak itu hidupnya tergantung dari tuannya. Pada siang hari mereka bekerja dan pada malam hari mereka diajari agama terutama menghafal sepuluh perintah Allah.

Untuk memudahkan pengaturannya, maka budak-budak tersebut dibagi menjadi 12 marga yaitu:

Jonathans, Leander, Loens, Bakas, Soedira, Samuel, Jacob, Laurens, Joseph, Tholense, Iskah, Zadokh (Kedua belas nama itu kini tertulis di duabelas pintu gereja Immanuel di jln. Pemuda Depok). (Sekarang keluarga Zadokh sudah tidak ada lagi).

 

 

 

Testamen Cornelis Chastelein

 

Sebelum meninggal dunia seperti kebiasaan orang Belanda, ia meninggalkan surat wasiat agar para ahli warisnya tidak saling berebut warisan yang berakibat pecahnya suatu keluarga. Ia mewariskan hartanya kepada Maria Chastelein dan Antony Chastelein dan di samping itu ia memerdekakan budak Kristen sebanyak 150 orang dan budak-budak lain yang beragama Islam. Di antara mereka adalah orang tua dari budak-budak yang sudah memeluk agama Kristen. Dalam testamennya berbunyi demikian:

 

Verder soo verclare te emanciperen en in volkomen vrijdom te stellen alle mijne Christenslaven en slavinnen benevens haare kinderen en kindskinderen, hetwelcke ook plaats zal moeten hebben, omtrent alle degene die geduurende mijn leven nog Christen en kinderen die na dato deser gebooren worden, bestaande de gemelte Christenen jegenwoordig soo oud als jong, benevens de kinderen en kinds kinderen wel in de honderd en vijftig menschen daar onder vele jonge mannen en vrouwen die in korten tijd nog merckelijk sullen kunnen vermenigvuldigen.

Nog soo schenke ik de vrijdom aan Jan van baly alias batoepahan synde Mohamedaan, aan Samat van Baly, Hanny van Baly, Willem van Macasser en Florian van Benglie, gelijk mede vrijdom schenke aan bapa ramia en sijn wijff Ma Ramia, Lucas en sijn wijff

Clara, Tanckas, Ma Djagat, Ma Lantas, Hagar en Soma, alle van Baly ende bejaarde off meest eigene; afgeleefde lieden van mijne Christen lijfeigene . . .

 

 

Gambar 4: Teks surat wasiat C.Chastelein untuk warga Depok asal

 

 

 

 

Chatselein dan seni

 

Perhatian Chatelein terhadap kesenian sangat besar, ini diungkapkan bahwa dia juga mempunyai dua jenis gamelan Bali. Gamelan yang bagus hanya dipakai pada saat upacara penting sedangkan gamelan biasa khusus untuk latihan sehari-hari. warisan itu menurutnya harus dipelihara dan kalau ada yang rusak harus segera diperbaiki secara gotong royong. Chastelein melarang pertunjukan ronggeng di daerah Depok karena pertunjukan ini selalu mengundang keonaran dan kerusuhan.

 

 

Chastelein dan hukum

 

Kepada pewarisnya Chastelein menganjurkan bahwa segala permasalahan di antara mereka harus diselesaikan secara kekeluargaan dan sedapat mungkin dapat diselesaikan di Depok di bawah para jarong (pemimpin kampung). Kalau masalah itu sampai ke tingkat pengadilan tinggi di Batavia, maka akan berlarut-larut dan menghabiskan biaya, waktu dan tenaga. Ia juga menganjurkan untuk pelanggar hukum terbera, kepadanya dijatuhi hukum pembuangan di pulau Edam atau pulau Onrust beberapa waktu sampai orang tersebut kapok dan tobat.

 

Chastelein dan keseimbangan lingkungan

 

Di samping eksploitasi tanah Depok untuk pertanian, Chastelein menyadari bahwa perlu adanya daerah resapan air. Oleh karena itu harus ada hutan lindung. Hutan itu harus dijaga dan dilestarikan oleh penghuninya. Ia menerapkan peraturan yang sangat keras terhadap orang yang menebang kayu atau bambu di hutan tersebut. Hutan itu kini tinggal sedikit karena sudah diserobot para pendatang untuk dijadikan tempat tinggal, dan kayunya sudah banyak dicuri orang. Dahulu para pencuri akan dihukum sangat berat. Kelihatannya hutan itu kini sudah tidak mampu lagi untuk menyangga kebutuhan air di Depok.

 

Penduduk Depok Masa Kolonial

 

Depok asal

 

Penduduk Depok asal adalah penduduk Depok yang telah mendiami tanah garapan pada saat Chastelein membeli tanah tersebut. Oleh Chastelein mereka boleh menggarap tanah tersebut dengan sistem maro yaitu setelah dipotong pajak dan penderep maka separoh dari hasil panenan diserahkan kepada pemiliknya yang sah yaitu Cornelis Chastelein. (Pada saat Cahstelein sudah meninggal dunia, pemilik yang sah adalah orang depok asli). Penduduk asal ini adalah oran Betawi dan beragama Islam.

 

 

Depok Asli

 

Yang dimaksud dengan penduduk Depok asli di sini adalah mantan budak yang telah dimerdekakan (gelijkgsteld) oleh Cornelis Chastelein. Mereka ini telah diberi tanah garapan. Yang membedakan antara warga Depok asal dan asli adalah bahwa warga Depok asal dikenai pajak 1/5 dari ahsil panenan, sedangkan warga Depok asli hanya 1/10 dari hasil panenan. Dengan adanya pembedaan ini jelas bahwa kedudukan warga Depok asli lebih tinggi dari pada warga Depok asal. Hubungan mereka menyerupai hubungan patron-client (Marjali dalam Majalah Antropologi 1977 : 60). Orang Depok asal menganggap wajar dan mengakui bahwa mereka bekerja di atas tanah orang Depok asli. Sebaliknya orang Depok asli wajib melindungi dan memperhatikan kesejahtaraan orang Depok asal. Pada saat hari raya Natal, Tahun Baru atau peringatan kematian Cornelis Chastelein, banyak orang Depok asal yang datang berkunjung ke rumah orang Depok asli. Sebaliknya pada saat hari raya Iedul Fitri banyak orang Depok asli yang berkunjung ke rumah orang Depok asal.

 

Warga Depok Kulon

 

Dengan dibukanya sekolah di Depok, banyak warga Depok yang mengenyam pendidikan sampai ke tingkat pendidikan tinggi. Mereka ini banyak yang menduduki jabatan pada perusahaan-perusahaan atau kantor-kantor pemerintahan. Terutama setelah dibukanya jalan kereta api Buitenzorg-Batavia pada akhir abad ke-19, banyak warga Depok asli yang vrijgesteld dan mereka lebih berbudaya Belanda, baik cara berpakaian, makan, kehidupoan sehari-hari juga mereka berbicara fasih dalam bahasa Belanda baik di luar maupun dalam rumah. Selain pola hidup juga gaya bangunan rumahnya yang terdiri dari bangunan permanen gedung dengan gaya khas Indis. Mereka ini banyak membangun di sekitar stasiun di Depok. Mereka biasa disebut kaum elit Depok Kulon. Karena kesibukannya orang Depok Kulon hanya sedikit kontak dengan orang Depok asli.

 

Warga Depok Wetan

 

Warga Depok Wetan adalah juga orang Depok asli tetapi mereka lebih memusatkan perhatian pada pekerjaan menggarap sawah dan ladang. Mereka ini tidak banyak memanfaatkan fasilitas sekolah tinggi di Depok karena biayanya yang mahal. Mereka ini lebih banyak bergaul dengan orang Depok asal. Dalam gaya hidup mereka juga banyak meniru budaya Belanda, karena antara warga Depok Wetan dan Depok Kulon tetap saling berhubungan dan bertemu dalam kegiatan-kegiatan keagamaan baik kebaktian rutin setiap Minggu maupun kegiatan-kegiatan lainnya. Menurut catatan kebanyakan dari mereka juga kurang mampu, bahkan smapai tahun 1870 banyak di antara mereka yang hidup bersama tanpa menikah di catatan sipil karena mereka tidak sanggup membayar ’boete’ (makna sebenarnya adalah ’denda’, di sini yang dimaksud adalah uang administrasi perkawinan) sebanyak 3 ringgit 24 ½ ketip (De Bannier 1914: 4).

 

Gambar5: Gereja Immanuel masa kolonial lambang pemersatu warga Depok Wetan dan Depok Kulon.

 

 

Warga Cina

 

Dalam testamennya, Cornelis Chastelein melarang orang Cina tinggal di Depok karena kebiasaan mereka yang tidak baik. Orang Cina suka meminjamkan uang dengan bunga yang tingi, suka main judi dan membuat onar. Hal itu akan membuat Depok tidak tenteram. Tetapi demi memenuhi kebutuhan sehari-hari orang Cina diperbolehkan berdagang di siang hari dan pada waktu malam mereka harus keluar dari Depok. Orang-orang Cina kemudian tingal di pondok-pondok yang sekarang disebut daerah Pondok Cina di dekat jalan Margonda. Kini tempat itu sudah menjadi pusat perbelanjaan Margo City.

 

Warga Pendatang

 

Karena Depok daerahnya tenang dan hawanya sejuk, serta suasananya yang nyaman dan aman, banyak pensiunan Belanda yang senang tinggal di Depok. Di samping orang Eropa dan Indo-Eropa, banyak juga orang Ambon, Manado, bahkan Papua yang tinggal dan menetap di Depok. Mereka merasa kerasan di Depok karena di samping alasan tersebut di atas juga karena agama mereka sama. Warga Depok asli banyak meniru adat istiadat kaum pendatang ini.

 

Pendidikan

 

Pendidikan Formal

 

Pada akhir abad ke-18 VOC mengalami kemunduran disusul dengan keruntuhan karena berbagai alasan dan terutama adanya Revolusi prancis pada tahun 1795 yang dampaknya terasa ke seluruh dunia. Belanda pada tahun 1796 jatuh ke tangan Prancis menjadi Republik Bataf. Hindia-Belanda yang diserahkan kepada Belanda dengan sendirinya jatuh ke tangan pemerintah Bataf. Akibat Revolusi tersebut muncul pemikiran baru yang disebut pencerahan atau Aufklärung yang memiliki ciri-ciri seperti: percaya pada nalar, percaya ke arah peri kemanusiaan, dan menjunjung akal sehat. Revolusi itu mendengung-dengungkan persamaan hak, persaudaraan dan kebebasan. Dengan adanya pemikiran ini terjadilah perubahan dalam bidang pendidikan agama. Ada pemisahan antara pemerintah dan agama. Setiap anak dididik sedemikian rupa sehingga mereka dapat memilih sendiri agama yang akan mereka anut. Aliran ini juga menjadi pelopor dari sistem pendidikan baru, yaitu pendidikan yang diselenggarakan oleh negara, yang kemudian menjelma menjadi sekolah-sekolah negeri. Pendidikan di Hindia-belanda lebih menekankan agar anak didik kelak dapat dapat mencari penghidupan atau pekerjaan demi kepentingan kolonial, dan tidak untuk hidup sesuai dengan lingkungannya. Sistem sekolah disusun berdasarkan perbedaan pelapisan sosial dalam masyarakat Indonesia, khususnya yang ada di pulau Jawa. Pada umumnya pendidikan diukur dan diarahkan untuk membentuk suatu golongan elite sosial agar dapat dipakai sebagai alat bagi keperluan mempertahankan supremasi politik dan ekonomi di Hindia-Belanda (Balitbang Depdikbud 1979: 47).

Untuk pertama kali di Depok didirikan Depoksche School berdasarkan Besluit van den Gouverneur-Generaal van Vaderlandsch-Indië no. 25, 24 Januari 1873. Sekolah ini diperuntukkan bagi orang-orang Eropa pendatang (Belanda), Indo-Belanda, Warga Depok asli yang sudah dinaturalisasikan (gelijkgesteld), dan orang Kristen Protestan lainnya. Karena kebutuhan sekolah ini kemudian berkembang menjadi Eropesche Lagere School (ELS). Uang sekolah sebesar 1% dari gaji orang tua murid. Di sekolah ini tidak diajarkan agama. Pelajaran agama diberikan di sekolah Minggu atau zondagsschool di depan gereja Immanuel (Eben Heiser). Sebagai pengantar adalah bahasa Belanda dengan kurikulum sama dengan di Belanda. Untuk memenuhi kebutuhan pengajar di Depok didirikan Speciaal Depoksche School semacam kweekschool ‘sekolah guru’. Kepala sekolah ini adalah orang Belanda dan pengajarnya orang-orang Depok asli. Sekolah ini pada awal abad 20 berubah menjadi HIS (Hollandsch Inlandsche School) diperuntukkan bagi orang Depok asli, orang Cina sekitar Depok, para bangsawan pendatang dan penduduk yang mampu.

Warga Depok asal memperoleh pendidikan Islam yang disebut ngaji. Pendidikan dilakukan di mesjid-mesjid dan di langgar-langgar, biasanya dilakukan pada malam hari karena pada siang hari anak-anak harus membantu orang tua bekerja di sawah. Pelajaran yang diberikan adalah tentang ibadah, budi pekerti (akhlak), shalat dan membaca dan menulis huruf Melayu-Arab (pegon). Baru pada awal abad ke-20 di desa-desa didirikan Volksschool ’sekolah rakyat’.

Atas inisiatif J.A. Schuurman, pada tahun 1869 di Depok didirikan sekolah Seminari. Murid-muridnya berasal dari pelbagai daerah di Hindia-Belanda. Karena peraturan dalam seminari amat ketat, para murid seminari jarang bergaul dengan warga Depok asli. Seminari ini ditutup pada tahun 1926 karena beberapa seminari telah didirikan pemerintah di pelbagai tempat lain, misalnya di Ambon. Salah satu tamatan seminari ini bernama Petrus Kafiar seorang putra Irian sebagai penginjil pribumi pertama di Irian Jaya (Sejarah Jemaat Depok 1989: 22).

 

Depok sebagai Negara dalam Negara

 

Dalam perkembangannya Depok sepeninggal Chastelein tetap mendapat perhatian dari Hindia-Belanda, baik pada masa VOC maupun pada masa sesudahnya. Berdasarkan kekuatan sebagai tanah partikelir Chastelein membentuk seolah-olah Depok merupakan sebuah ”negara kecil” dalam wilayah VOC, di mana polisi harus dipertahankan dan ditingkatkan kinerjanya dalam memberikan rasa aman dan tenteram bagi penduduknya. Ia bahkan mengusulkan Depok dipimpin oleh seorang opsir (vaandrig) atau pangkat setingkat letnan yang diangkat dan dibiayai oleh warga Depok, pemerintah pusat tidak usah mengeluarkan sepeserpun untuk itu (Bannier 1914: 3, 11).

. . . Jarong van Baly, ende die na dato deselve sal komen te succedeeren (om haar een wynig aansien te geven) te honoreren met qualiteyt van vaandrig off luytent, vermits hetselve maar titulair is en de E.Comp. niet een stuyver te kosten komt (Chatselein 14 Maret 1714).

 

VOC yang berorientassi pada perdagangan, terutama rempah-rempah dan hasil bumi lainnya, menganggap Depok sebagai daerah penyangga dan dapat memasok kebutuhan sehari-hari penduduk Batavia. VOC merasa tidak terganggu mengenai sistem pemerintahan wilayah Depok dan oleh karenanya otonomi Depok tidak pernah dicegah atau dilarang (Bannier 1914 : 3).

Dengan diberlakukannya Undang-undang (Agrarische Wet) pada tahun 1870, maka ada perubahan status tanah di Depok. Depok menjadi daerah otonomi berada di bawah karesidenan Bogor (Buitenzorg) dengan peraturan yang dikeluarkan pada tahun 1871 (Het Reglement van het Land Depok). Reglemen ini terdiri dari 5 bagian yaitu Pengurus pemerintahan (Bestuur) terdiri dari 7 pasal, Komisaris (Commissarissen) terdiri dari 1 pasal, Rapat (Sidang) (Vergaderingen) terdiri dari 3 pasal, Gelar camat (Marinjo) terdiri dari 3 pasal dan Lain-lain ketetapan (Gemengde Bepalingen) terdiri dari 9 pasal. Isi reglemen ini kelihatan sangat simpel dan rinci dan demokratis untuk sebuah daerah otonomi. Di dalamnya tertulis hak dan kewajiban warga, membangun atau menyewakan kebun, tanah atau rumah, penggunaan uang kas yang antara lain untuk urusan pendidikan, personil pemerintah Depok, urusan kematian, tunjangan tahunan untuk penduduk yang berusia 60 tahun dan sebagainya.

 

Gambar 6: Pasal penutup dari Reglement van het land Depok 1871

 

Intinya dari reglemen ini ialah bahwa Depok sebagai daerah otonomi dipimpin oleh seorang Presiden (President) yang dibantu oleh seorang sekretaris daerah (Secretaris) dan seorang bendahara (Thesaurier) dan dua orang kemetir (gecommiteerden) atau komisi. Mereka dipilih langsung oleh seluruh warga yang sudah dewasa (meerderjarigen). Masa jabatan untuk Presiden selama 3 tahun dan bisa diperpanjang, untuk sekretaris, bendahara dan anggota komisi dipilih untuk masa jabatan dua tahun dan dapat diperpanjang.

Uang kas disimpan dalam lemari pemerintah dengan tiga buah kunci yang berbeda yang dipegang oleh presiden, sekretaris dan bendahara. Pembukaan kas harus dilakukan bersama-sama oleh ketiga orang pejabat tinggi tersebut. Dengan sistem ini kemungkinan untuk penyalahgunaan uang kas oleh salah seorang pejabat sangat kecil.

 

Depok di awal abad ke-21

Seandainya Cornelis Chastelein masih hidup, dan ia menengok daerahnya setelah hampir 300 tahun, ia akan amat sangat tercengang. bahwa ada beberapa bangunan yang masih dilestarikan tapi ada juga yang sudah dimusnahkan demi kepentingan ekonomi. Gereja Immanuel sebagai simbol pemersatu seluruh warga Depok tempo doeloe di Jalan Pemuda masih berdiri megah, bahkan makin cantik.. Tanda peringatan yang salah satu kosakatanya “ peroesah’ tidak dimengerti oleh para ahli bahasa di FIB Universitas Indonesia, tapi dapat dipahami oleh warga Depok, masih melekat di koridor Gereja Immanuel. Jika 300 tahun yang lalu hanya ada gereja Immanuel, kini di Depok terdapat 55 buah gereja. Demikian juga gedung kantor pemerintahan yang kini sudah beralih fungsi menjadi sebuah rumah sakit masih tegak berdiri. Pohon besar di halaman kantor LCC masih berdiri dan berdaun rimbun sebagai saksi bisu perkembangan kota Depok.

 

Rumah pondok Cina sekarang sudah berubah menjadi mal raksasa Centro Depok dengan Café Olala, Barra diCafé dan Starbuck. Di bekas onderneming karet milik keluarga Lauw kini berdiri Universitas Indonesia yang megah yang antara fakultas-fakultasnya yang berseberangan dihubungkan oleh Jembatan Teksas yang berlambang lingga dan yoni modern, sungguh suatu perpaduan yang harmonis mewarnai kota Depok.

 

Gambar 7: Gereja Immanuel di Jln. Pemuda th. 2007

Gambar 8: Pohon besar di halaman LCC th. 2007

 

Gambar 9: Rektorat Universitas Indonesia th. 2006

Gambar 10: Jembatan Teksas dilihat dari Fakultas Ilmu Pengetahuan Budaya UI (2007)

 

Simpulan

Dari uraian di atas dapat ditarik simpulan bahwa Depok merupakan contoh pionir suatu daerah otonomi yang mandiri yang mampu mengurus daerahnya sendiri melalui sumberdaya sendiri tanpa mengabaikan keseimbangan ekologi. Untuk mencapai hal tersebut kewibawaan pemerintah daerah dengan aparat pemerintahnya dalam hal ini polisi perlu ditegakkan. Depok sejak dulu adalah contoh daerah multi kultural, multi lingual dan multi etnik. Keperbedaan agama di Depok sejak masa kolonial tetap dijunjung tinggi ini nampak dalam hubungan yang erat antara warga Depok asal yang mayoritas beragama Kristen dan Depok asli yang beragama Islam, maupun dengan warga Cina yang beragama Budha. Berdasarkan kenyataan-kenyataan tersebut mudah-mudahan sejarah Depok masa lalu dapat menjadi pelajaran bagi para pimpinan penentu kebijaksanaan pemerintah Depok di masa kini dan yang akan datang, sehingga tercipta suatu masyarakat yang aman, tenteram, damai sentausa seperti yang idam-idamkan oleh setiap warga Depok. Sekian.

Daftar Pustaka

Balsitbang DEPDIKBUD (1979). Pendidikan di Indonesia 1900-1942.Jakarta.

Brugman I.J. (1938). Geschiedenis van het Onderwijs in Nederlands-Indië. Groningen:

J.B. Wolters.

----------- (1999) Buku HUT Jemaat Depok ke 285 28 Juni 1999.

De Vries, J.M (1976). “De Depokkers, Geschiedenis, Sociaal Structuur en Taalgebruik

van een Geïsoleerde Gemeenschap” dalam BKI nr. 132.edisi ketiga.

Heuken S.J., Adolf (1999). Sumber-sumber asli sejarah Jakarta Jilid I Dokumen-

dokumen sejarah Jakarta sampai dengan akhir abad ke-16. Jakarta: Cipta Loka

Caraka.

J.D.V. (1914). ”Cornelis Chastelein (1657-1714) dalam De Bannier, Christlijke

Weekblad oor Nederlandsch- Indië. Depok = Jubelium = Nummer”. Weltevreden:

6-e jaargang nr. 26, vrijdag 26 Juni 1914.

Jonathans, R.M. (1998). ”Sejarah Singkat masyarakat Kristen Depok” disajikan dalam

rangka memperingati hari lang tahun jemaat Masehi Depok yang ke 284 di Depok

pada tanggal 28 juni 1998.

Kridalaksana, Harimurti (1993). Kamus Linguistik . jakarta: PT. gramedia Pustaka

Utama, LCC t.t. “Latar Belakang Komunitas Kristen Depok dan Berdirinya

Rumah Sakit Harapan Depok”.

Marzali, Amri (1975). Krisis Identitas pada orang Depok asli. Jakarta: UI-Press.

Michrob, Halwany dan A. Mudjahid Chudori 2003. Catatan Masa Lalu Banten. Serang:

Saudara. ed. ke-3.

Nirmalawati, Prima Duria (1990). Pengaruh Pendidikan Barat Pada Orang Depok Asli.

Depok: Fakultas Ilmu Pengetahuan Budaya Universitas Indonesia. Skripsi. Belum

dipublikasikan.

Subekti, Prof. SH (1985). Pokok-pokok Hukum Perdata .Jakarta: Intermasa, cetakan ke-3.

Wijk Jr, P.Van (t.t). Nederlandsch Zendingstijdschrift. Amsterdam:Commité voor

Nederlandsch Zendingsconferenties, 9-e jaargang.

 

Dokumen:

Algemeen Verslag der residentie Batavia over het jaar 1890.

Besluit nr. 1

Besluit nr. 33

Chastelein Testament 215 jaar

Departement van Onderwijs en Eredienst en Nijverheid nr. 2584

Missive Gouvernements Secretaris No. 915

Missive Gouvernements Secretaris No. 255

Regatering Almanak

Staatsblad van Nederlandsch-Indië1941 nr. 396

 

 

 


1. Yang dimaksud dengan OTDA adalah Otonomi Daerah.
2. Makalah ini disampaikan dalam Seminar ”Quo Vadis Depok? Peluang dan Tantangan” yang diselenggarakan oleh Pusat
    Penelitian Kebudayaan Fakultas Ilmu Pengetahuan Budaya Universitas Indonesia di FIB UI pada tanggal 5-8 September 2007.
Terakhir Diperbaharui ( Senin, 10 November 2008 03:16 )
 
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